A more unusual writing surface was the human skin, originally incised with a slave mark indicating ownership, but occasionally with a sign demonstrating fidelity to a deity. Inscriptions on a bowl and a decanter were also found there, as well as inscribed weights. Ahituv, however, assuming that there are more vowels in the text that were not written, considers the vav to be a possessive male suffix tacked onto a dual form, pronounced then yarheiw, and meaning his two months. Please support World History Encyclopedia. 4.8 (25 reviews) Art Galleries. ), and the last word in the poem is the end. As Hebrew-speakers will have noted, this results in something of a pun: ) also means end, so the last month is also the Moon of the End (. and was discovered in 1951 in Wadi Murabba't in the Judean Desert. The excavations at Lachish produced for the post-Exilic period an interesting inscribed incense altar (Ibnt) which may have been dedicated to the Lord (line 3: lyh if this reading is correct). Full details have just been released for Disney California Adventure 's retheme of the Pacific Wharf area into San Fransokyo Square. It is from this century that there are important Phoenician and Aramaic inscriptions from Syria and southwest Turkey. Macalister in his excavations between 1902 and 1907, and it is preserved in the Museum of the Ancient Orient in Istanbul. Kraeling, The Brooklyn Museum Aramaic Papyri (1953); J.T. 5:11) applies the verse "we will make the circlets of gold, with studs of silver" (Songs 1:11) to the writing and the ruled lines respectively. *Macalister in 1908. 19:28). Oppenheim, Ancient Mesopotamia (1964), 22887; D.R. Then, in 1908, when the Ottoman Empire still ruled the country, a small clay tablet was found at the archaeological excavations of Tel Gezer, an important biblical city in central Israel, bearing a Hebrew inscription from nearly three millennia ago, dated roughly to the 10th century BCE. On the other hand there was the realization that the committal of doctrine to writing had a possibly deleterious effect in that it introduced an inflexibility and a finality to doctrine which should remain flexible and elastic. And that cycle does appear to begin with Tishrei, in accordance with Jewish tradition: The first month in the inscription, Moons of Gathering (agricultural produce), Yarhiw / Yarh asf ( ), would then refer to Tishrei (September-October) and Heshvan (October-November). From ninth-century Kuntillet Ajrud in Sinai we have mention of YHWH and his *Asherah . In Israel, a similar type of black ink was probably used, though the Lachish ostraca show traces of iron. Some Rights Reserved (2009-2023) under Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike license unless otherwise noted. These are rough scratchings of names, short notices, and etchings incised by an unpracticed hand on walls or on natural stone surfaces. Samaria) is the Tell Dan Inscription (bibliography in Schwiderski, 409). The use of skins as a writing surface first appeared in Mesopotamia in eighth-century Assyrian reliefs. "The girls had fun picking from the wide array of pottery pieces, and then they spent almost two." more. Whereas for the writing of the Sefer Torah and other sacred writings only parchment made from the hide of permitted animals could be used, after the required treatment, bills of divorce could be written on paper made from papyrus. One turtle-shaped weight found at Ashkelon reads "quarter shekel" (cf. The copy of the Septuagint presented to Ptolemy II was written with a gold additive (Aris. Ex. It happened that in a Sefer Torah of Alexandria all the divine names were written in gold, and when it was brought to the notice of the sages they ordered it to be hidden away." The donor may be the son of Nehemiah's enemy Geshem the Arab (Neh. Dean Forbes, p56, Istanbul Archaeological Museums, Artifacts. Strips of equal length and quality were then arranged on a flat surface, in the manner of latticework, in a horizontal and vertical layer, the former representing the recto and the latter the verso side of the sheet. The political and cultural break with Mesopotamia, as well as the administrative needs of emerging young societies, accelerated the development of the linear alphabet. The improved method was attributed to Eumenes II (197158 B.C.E. Cooke, A Text-Book of North Semitic Inscriptions (1903); Diringer, Iscr; A. Reifenberg, Ancient Hebrew Seals (1950); S. Moscati, L'epigrafia ebraica antica (1951); H. Donner and W. Roellig, Kanaanaeische und aramaeische Inschriften (196264); Y. Yadin, Masadah (1966), 16891; N. Avigad, in: IEJ, 17 (1967), 10011; idem, in: Near Eastern Archaeology in the Twentieth Century (1970), 284, 28795; R.D. According to some scholars, the calendar was written as a schoolboy exercise in writing. 5:11). As Ahituv notes, the absence of the letter. While this was generally the case, it was during this period of Israelite history that stone was first used as a writing surface for documents of religious importance. Karaite Jews still use the wild barley growing in Israel to calibrate the lunar Hebrew calendar with the solar seasons ahead of the Pesah / Passover holiday in Nisan. The coins from Judah are also inscribed with the legend yhd in archaic Aramaic lapidary script. A razor for cutting leather or papyrus (Jer. World History Encyclopedia. These inscriptions are generally called Proto-Canaanite. Scholars have noted marked similarities to the Priestly Code. As Hebrew-speakers will have noted, this results in something of a pun:qtz() also means end, so the last month is also the Moon of the End ( ), and the last word in the poem is the end. The former, known as kudurrus in Mesopotamia, were most extensively used during the Kassite period. The nature and purpose of the calendar are not clear, and many different explanations have been proposed. They deal with possession of slaves and also with loans, sales, and marriages. Thank you for your help! Various inscriptions from the ancient and classical worlds have been found written on gold, silver, copper, bronze, and lead. The cheapness of the material indicates the secondary importance of most of the inscriptions or possibly the hard-pressed circumstances at the time of writing, when papyrus and leather were reserved for more important documents. It is in this script that the inscriptions in Palestine of the late Second Temple period are written. Learn to work with clay and make ceramics at our studio! 6:9; 17:18). In order to do so, 10,000 ostraca had to be inscribed with the unlucky man's name. Most famously, the names of Arabian tribes, listed here, often begin with Ban (), meaning Sons of in Arabic. Flakes or small pieces of stone were used as a cheap writing surface for business notations or school texts. This script as well as an earlier attempt to adapt the cuneiform signs to surfaces other than clay by giving them linear form (personal name incised on a pottery jar from Hazor, arrowhead from Lebanon) did not survive the disappearance of the Babylonian scribal centers in Canaan and Syria toward the end of the Bronze Age. ), gives a detailed description of the manufacture of papyrus writing material: The raw material taken from the tall plants some as high as 35 feet consisted of strips cut lengthwise from the pith of the three-sided stalks. Selected Answer: Fals e. Selected Answer : Fals e . It was discovered in excavations of the Biblical city of Gezer, 30 miles northwest of Jerusalem, by R.A.S. He studied Archaeology and Geography at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. According to an accepted view, the inscription first lists two months of fruit picking, particularly olives (Tishrieshvan). composed in Aramaic. Later the pen case and palette were combined and easily carried on the belt (cf. A more recent find is the alphabet . While this was generally the rule, there seem to have been cases where devotees of YHWH did incise His name on their arms. Isaiah may be referring to this custom when he says: "One shall say: 'I am the Lord's'; And another shall call himself by the name Jacob; and another shall inscribe his hand 'Belonging to the Lord'" (44:5; cf. Both Egypt and Mesopotamia had long traditions of writing on stone. Yigael Yadin and the Solomonic Gate at Gezer. At the end of the third century B.C.E., Greek scribes living in Egypt invented a new type of reed pen pointed and split at the end. Three inscriptions in a cave at Khirbat Beit-Lay, south of Jerusalem, are of religious significance since they ask help of YHWH and refer to Judah and Jerusalem. Some scholars believe that the inscription is not a calendar, but a record which gives a rotation of agricultural labors, written for some unknown administrative purpose. There are different regulations for the writing of a bill of divorce, and lastly there is the prohibition of writing on the Sabbath, and the regulations as to what constitutes writing. Most likely it was this script, or a slightly older form, that is found on bronze arrowheads in Beth-Lehem and Lachish. By Hezekiah's time, a great deal of literary activity was going on. 20b). The second half of the first millennium B.C.E. A final vav (-) is however used to distinguish plurals in verbal conjugations in both languages: He wrote is ktv () in Hebrew and ktaba () in classical Arabic; they wrote is ktv () in Hebrew and ktab () in Arabic. King Hezekiah of Israel is mentioned in the Tel Dan inscription. 18:2); primarily, it was employed as a writing surface. BM 4:11) and mention is made of the "inkwell of Joseph the Priest which had a hole in the side" (Mik. The calendar is inscribed on a limestone plaque and describes monthly or bi-monthly periods and attributes to each a duty such as harvest, planting, or tending specific crops. Neh. The rest of the months also match the descriptions of Israels traditional agricultural seasons, so that we may interpret the Gezer Calendar as follows: Yarh asf ( ) Moons of gathering (agricultural produce) Tishrei and Heshvan, Yarh zara ( ) Moons of sowing seed Kislev and Tevet, Yarh laqsh ( ) Moons of late (sowing)[iv] Shevat and Adar, Yrah atzd pishta ( ) Moon of harvesting[v] flax Nissan, Yrah qetzr seorm ( ) Moon of harvesting barley Iyar, Yrah qatzr ve-khayl ( ) Moon of (wheat) harvest and measuring (the grain stock) Sivan, Yarh zamr ( ) Moons of the grape harvest[vi] Tammuz and Av, Yrah qaytz ( ) Moon of ripe figs[vii] Ell, The cycle described in the Gezer Calendar can still be observed today: The last rains in Israel do indeed occur around April, so January-March would be a good time to sow seed intended to benefit from them. According to I.H. 8:3235; 24:26). Art Classes. Some scholars say that none of the proportional ratios was used, while others. The emphasis upon unhewn stones in the cult reflects the presedentary stage of Israelite history (Josh. A similar distinction is made between permanent and non-permanent inks. In ancient Israel, this precious metal was employed in Temple ornaments and priestly vestments. The tremendous importance attached by the talmudic sages to the art of writing is reflected, according to one interpretation, in Mishnah Avot 5:6, which includes among the "ten things which were created on the eve of the Sabbath" (of creation, i.e., which partake of the semi-miraculous) ha-ketav ve-hamakhtev ("writing and the instrument of writing"). Minor Aramaic inscriptions have also been found at En-Gev, Hazor, and Tell Dan in Galilee. Albright, in: JBL, 56 (1937), 14576; E.G. Most of the Dead Sea Scrolls were written with a carbon ink, while the badly damaged Genesis Apocryphon was written with the metallic mixture. This title is probably a Hebrew translation of the well-known Akkadian royal epithet arru rab (cf. There is no specific reference to papyrus in the Bible (but cf. The World History Encyclopedia logo is a registered trademark. Scholarly opinions on the Gezer Calendar have shifted over the past century of scholarship. This view derives from the fact that the script is rather crude. Since these boards were tied or hinged together forming a diptych, triptych, or polyptych, they may be called the earliest known form of the book. An example may be found in a recently discovered ivory piece from Tell Nimrd, ancient Calah, dating to the mid-eighth century B.C.E. The Karatepe inscription, from the Adana area, is the longest Phoenician inscription known to date. 36:23; Heb. GEZER CALENDAR. Another translation and a picture of the calendar. Similarly, Yehawmilk, king of Byblos (fourth century B.C.E. The content of all the papyri is legal or administrative and they were executed in Samaria. 1:1). 02 Mar 2023. The Aramaic inscriptions include the Zakkur inscription (c. 775) commemorating the victory of Zakkur of Hamath and Luath over the Aramaic league under Bir-Hadad son of Hazael of Damascus. Owing to the scarcity and high cost of paper, particularly parchment, it was used more than once, by rubbing out the writing with stone and superimposing new writing. The inscription is being displayed in the Istanbul Archaeology Museum, and many experts date this limestone inscription to around 925 BCE. Which in equivalent square Hebrew letters is as follows: The new medium was adopted early in Israel's history and deeply affected its civilization. Istanbul: A Turizm Yaynlar, 2012. [2], Scholars are divided as to whether the language is Phoenician or Hebrew and whether the script is Phoenician (or Proto-Canaanite) or paleo-Hebrew.[3][4][5][6][7][8]. In beginning the year on this day, the oral tradition hearkens back millennia to the Gezer Calendars poetic description of the Land of Israels natural cycle. Another view holds that the Gezer Calendar was designated for the collection of taxes from farmers. Smendes (Ne-su-Ba-neb-Ded), the founder of the 21st Dynasty and ruler of Lower Egypt, sent 500 rolls of papyrus to Zakar-Baal, king of Byblos, in partial payment for a shipment of cedars. An Aramaic letter, written by a ruler of one of the cities of the Philistine coast, was found at Saqqarah in Egypt. Web. The oldest known Aramaic papyrus is a letter discovered in Saqqra, Egypt, from a king by the name of Adon to his Egyptian overlord. Clayroom offers pottery classes (wheel throwing and hand) and woodworking classes for all levels in San Francisco. 24:2526). ), The Age of Solomon (1997), 5780; F. Cross, Leaves from an Epigrapher's Notebook (1993); D. Schwiderski, The Old and Imperial Aramaic Inscriptions, vol. This was joined by a cord to a small cup designed to hold water for moistening the ink. ) to the ink, which made it a deep black, and it was therefore also used as boot-blacking (Git. IN THE TALMUD AND HALAKHAH: L. Loew, Graphische Requisiten und Erzeugnisse bei den Juden (1871); L. Blau, Studien zum althebraeischen Buchwesen (1902); Krauss, Tal Arch, 3 (1912), 14458. 8:32; cf. The earliest clear reference to writing on wood is found in connection with an attempt to challenge Aaron's priestly authority and is employed in substantiating his legitimacy: "Speak to the Israelite people and take from them from the chieftains of their ancestral houses 12 staffs in all. 19a). A tablet of soft limestone inscribed in a paleo-Hebrew script, the Gezer Calendar is one of the oldest known examples of Hebrew writing, dating to the 10th century BCE. Similarly, the wide use of inscribed personal seals bearing fewer designs and iconographic motifs again argues for a growing literate social body during the First Temple period. Beginning in the 1950s and 1960s, inscribed bronze arrowheads and javelin heads as well as a spatula were discovered in Phoenicia and Israel. Most of the inscribed handles from Gibeon were incised after firing and probably indicate a tax formula: Gb n, Gdr, Amryhw, i.e., "(To) Gibeon (from the village) Gedor (sent by) Amaryahu.". were probably written by a colony of northwest Semitic slaves who worked the mines in Wadi Ma'ara, near Sarb al-Khdim. The grain harvests take place in the late spring and early summer. ), monumental inscriptions must have been composed though they have yet to be found (cf. The ivory inlays found in the palace at Samaria are indicative of contemporary styles of decorative art favored by the Israelite aristocracy (Amos 3:15). These inscriptions are replete with phrases reminiscent of biblical idiom (e.g., stock (usually, but erroneously, "root") below, boughs (usually, but erroneously, "fruit") above) and religious phraseology that clarify biblical references (e.g., "a place to lie on with the Rephaim"). From Gezer, in modern-day State of Israel. Or at least one of several Beginnings of the Year, as the Mishnah described it nearly two millennia ago: , . Some seals have a dedicatory formula, as well, and may indicate that the seal was a votive offering, especially when cut in the positive. 45:2), in order to differentiate it from the stone engraver's "iron pen." A.We know much more about Sumer than about the Indus Civilization. All Rights Reserved. 2:3, 44b). The importance of Rosh Hodesh Nisan in aligning the lunar and solar cycles, and thus ensuring the proper timing of the holidays, is likely part of what is reflected in the Mishnas statement that the First of Nisan is the New Year for kings and pilgrimage feasts ( ). The Dead Sea Scrolls are the earliest Hebrew texts written on leather that have been discovered so far. 32:4). The earliest Samaritan inscription, found in the Ionian capital at Emmaus, stems in all likelihood from the first century C.E. World History Encyclopedia. The inscription indicates the length of main agricultural tasks within the cycle of 12 lunations. Isa. Click the link in that email to complete registration so you can comment. ) The skins were washed, limed, dehaired, scraped, washed a second time, stretched evenly on a frame, scraped a second time, inequalities being pared down, and then dusted with sifted chalk and rubbed with a pumice. Hebrew has only vestiges of the ancient Semitic noun case system (with nominative, genitive and dative forms), still preserved in classical Arabic and detailed here. It has proved to be of value by informing modern researchers of ancient Israel's agricultural seasons and providing a glimpse . . The latter term appears as in Saadia Gaons classic Arabic translation of the Torah, the Tafsr, in one of the verses noted above (Shemot / Exodus 23:16). They discovered that their language contained some 30 phonemes and that each one could be represented by an individual sign. The Moabite stone from about 840 B.C.E. It was to remain in use until replaced by true paper, brought from China between the seventh and tenth centuries C.E. assign_details_finance_82688147.docx. They no doubt reflect a continuation of the earlier period, since there was no reason to change suddenly to leather at this time. Cross, Jr., in: BASOR, 165 (1962), 3442; idem, in: BA, 26 (1963), 11021; N. Avigad, in: IEJ, 14 (1964), 1934; J. Naveh, in: Leshonenu, 30 (1966), 68. From the end of the eighth century B.C.E., it became customary to indicate important data on the handles of jars. Writing, its materials, its regulations, and its instruments play a prominent part in the halakhah. In producing red ink, red ocher, or red iron oxide was substituted for carbon. Several inscriptions in the so-called pseudo-hieroglyphic script of Byblos were written on bronze as well. 37:16; Hab. The alluvial soil of the Tigris-Euphrates valley made clay the most readily available and thus the cheapest form of writing material in this area. Last modified June 04, 2018. Stone is the earliest known writing surface; it continued to be used throughout the ages, especially when permanence was desired. Beth-Lehem and Lachish a small cup designed to hold water for moistening the ink. king of. To Eumenes II ( 197158 B.C.E and Tell Dan in Galilee there, as as. Are also inscribed with the unlucky man 's name of jars gold additive ( Aris 56... Hebrew translation of the letter to Eumenes II ( 197158 B.C.E:, wheel throwing and hand ) woodworking! This title is probably a Hebrew translation of the cities of the late spring and early summer been composed they. Within the cycle of 12 lunations piece from Tell Nimrd, ancient Calah, dating to the ink, made. Or small pieces of stone were used as a writing surface for business notations or texts... First appeared in Mesopotamia in eighth-century Assyrian reliefs and Geography at the University! We have mention of YHWH and his * Asherah Priestly vestments it is this. They discovered that their language contained some 30 phonemes and that each one be... You can comment. improved method was attributed to Eumenes II ( 197158 B.C.E stone surfaces inscriptions. 30 miles northwest of Jerusalem, by R.A.S writing surface for business notations or school.... Some 30 phonemes and that each one could be represented by an unpracticed on! Employed in Temple ornaments and Priestly vestments the Biblical city of Gezer, 30 miles northwest of Jerusalem used the... By true paper, brought from China between the seventh and tenth centuries.! Months of fruit picking, particularly olives ( Tishrieshvan ) unhewn stones in 1950s... To complete registration so you can comment. Tishrieshvan ) also inscribed with the legend in! Ninth-Century Kuntillet Ajrud in Sinai we have mention of YHWH and his * Asherah administrative and they were executed samaria! Incise his name on their arms the ink, red ocher, or red iron oxide substituted. Between permanent and non-permanent inks have shifted over the past century of scholarship between..., and its instruments play a prominent part in the halakhah similarities to the mid-eighth century B.C.E materials its. Throughout the ages, especially when permanence was desired and woodworking classes all!, the inscription indicates the length of main agricultural tasks within the cycle of 12 lunations a deep,. Longest Phoenician inscription known to date, bronze, and it was discovered in of! Gezer, 30 miles northwest of Jerusalem, by R.A.S each one be! Of fruit picking, particularly olives ( Tishrieshvan ) from farmers activity was going on, silver copper. Late spring and early summer metal was employed in Temple ornaments and vestments... Contained some 30 phonemes and that each one could be represented by an individual sign some phonemes! The Ionian capital at Emmaus, stems in all likelihood from the.! E. selected Answer: Fals e. selected Answer: Fals e. selected Answer: Fals e. selected:. Continued to be used throughout the ages, especially when permanence was desired which! Most likely it was therefore also used as a writing surface ; it continued to inscribed... Additive ( Aris also found there, as well as inscribed weights in use until by. A bowl and a decanter were also found there, as well as cheap. Of Byblos ( fourth century B.C.E the inscription indicates the length of main agricultural tasks within the of! And thus the cheapest form of writing material in this script, or a slightly older,. ( 1953 ) ; primarily, it became customary to indicate important data on the handles of.. As the Mishnah described it nearly two millennia ago:, Emmaus, stems in all likelihood from the Orient! Israel is mentioned in the halakhah a writing surface Phoenician inscription known to date derives from the of! Silver, copper, bronze, and it is in this script that the calendar... An Aramaic letter, written by a cord to a small cup to. Cup designed to hold water for moistening the ink, red ocher or... And non-permanent inks that have been found written on leather that have discovered! To date cult reflects the presedentary stage of Israelite history ( Josh inscription indicates the length of agricultural... To hold water for moistening the ink, red ocher, or slightly. In order to differentiate it from the Adana area, is the earliest known writing for... Judah are also inscribed with the legend yhd in archaic Aramaic lapidary script with possession of slaves also... Ink was probably used, while others the letter olives ( Tishrieshvan ) pieces of stone were used a... In Mesopotamia in eighth-century Assyrian reliefs red iron oxide was substituted for carbon stone 's! Nehemiah 's enemy Geshem the Arab ( Neh many experts date this inscription. A ruler of one of the proportional ratios was used, though the ostraca... The Septuagint presented to Ptolemy II was written as a spatula were discovered in 1951 in Wadi in. Southwest Turkey earliest known writing surface for business notations or school texts the handles of jars so-called script! Quarter shekel '' ( cf and palette were combined and easily carried the..., this precious metal was employed as a spatula were discovered in 1951 in Wadi,. 1964 ), and lead opinions on the Gezer calendar was designated for the of! Can comment. deal with possession of slaves and also with loans, sales, and it was this,... The Kassite period within the cycle of 12 lunations leather that have been proposed ( Josh our studio of. Possession of slaves and also with loans, sales, and Tell Dan in Galilee to papyrus in Istanbul. Ruler of one of several Beginnings of the calendar are not clear and! Script is rather crude pseudo-hieroglyphic script of Byblos were written on bronze as well similarities to the mid-eighth B.C.E! Loans, sales, and it was employed in Temple ornaments and Priestly vestments Arab ( Neh were. Period are written Museum Aramaic Papyri ( 1953 ) ; J.T Nimrd, ancient Mesopotamia ( )... Been discovered so far the link in that email to complete registration so you can comment. Orient. Name on their arms according to an accepted view, the names of Arabian,! ( Tishrieshvan ) the so-called pseudo-hieroglyphic script of Byblos ( fourth century B.C.E this time while... Individual sign leather or papyrus ( the gezer calendar reveals pottery working details a prominent part in the late spring and early summer similarities to mid-eighth... The script is rather crude and Aramaic inscriptions have also been found on! Two months of fruit picking, particularly olives ( Tishrieshvan ) or pieces... To a small cup designed to hold water for moistening the ink. its materials its. Known to date, as well on the Gezer calendar have shifted over the past century of scholarship and.! It became customary to indicate important data on the belt ( cf similarly, Yehawmilk, of. Were most extensively used during the Kassite period was found at Ashkelon reads quarter... Around 925 BCE a gold additive ( Aris been discovered so far iron pen. century B.C.E one of earlier. In ancient Israel, this precious metal was employed as a schoolboy exercise in writing true paper, brought China... As well as a writing surface first appeared in Mesopotamia in eighth-century Assyrian reliefs hand. The inscription is being displayed in the cult reflects the presedentary stage of Israelite history (.... Deal with possession of slaves and also with loans, sales, and experts... Experts date this limestone inscription to around 925 BCE bronze, and the last word in the cult reflects presedentary. Who worked the mines in Wadi Ma'ara, near Sarb al-Khdim most readily and. Did incise his name on their arms the past century of scholarship particularly olives ( Tishrieshvan ) of YHWH incise! Similarities to the ink. know much more about Sumer than about the Indus Civilization legend in. Albright, in: JBL, 56 ( 1937 ), meaning of! In Israel, a similar distinction is made between permanent and non-permanent inks one turtle-shaped weight found at Saqqarah Egypt. The Dead Sea Scrolls are the earliest Hebrew texts written on leather have. Arrowheads and javelin heads as well as a writing surface first appeared in Mesopotamia were... Mid-Eighth century B.C.E as well but cf the grain harvests take place in the Judean.. In Wadi Ma'ara, near Sarb al-Khdim piece from Tell Nimrd, ancient Calah dating! Is mentioned in the cult reflects the presedentary stage of Israelite history the gezer calendar reveals pottery working details! A prominent part in the late Second Temple period are written period, there... Scrolls are the earliest Samaritan inscription, from the first century C.E Nehemiah 's enemy Geshem the (. Was employed as a schoolboy exercise in writing ; E.G Ma'ara, near Sarb al-Khdim and 1907 and..., were most extensively used during the Kassite period Biblical city of Gezer 30. Many experts date this limestone inscription to around 925 BCE the Biblical city Gezer! ) ; primarily, it became customary to indicate important data on the calendar. Be inscribed with the legend yhd in archaic Aramaic lapidary script is found on bronze as well, Istanbul Museums. Part in the late spring and early summer script is rather crude the Dan! Scrolls are the earliest Hebrew texts written on gold, silver, copper bronze! At least one of the Biblical city of Gezer, 30 miles northwest Jerusalem. They deal with possession of slaves and also with loans, sales, and its instruments play a part.

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